Born in 1292 to María de Molina and Sancho IV of Castile, spent time during his childhood traveling with his mother in support of his brother Fernando IV (r. 1295-1312). María allotted lands in Galicia to her young son.
Following the deaths of Infantes Juan and Pedro at the Battle of the Vega of Granada, Felipe became a regent for his nephew Alfonso XI of Castile, who was seven years old at the time. Don Juan Manuel and Juan el Tuerto joined Felipe as regents for the young king. Alfonso reached his majority in 1325, and Felipe fades from the historical record at this point. He died soon afterward, in 1327.
References & Further Reading
Vann, Theresa. “Felipe, Infante.” In Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia. Edited by E. Michael Gerli. New York: Routledge, 2003. 322-323.
Diego Gelmírez was the first archbishop of Santiago de Compostela and played a major role in the development of the town during the twelfth century.
Timeline
c. 1065: Birth of Gelmírez.
1094-1095: Accompanied Raymond of Burgundy, the ruler of Galicia, on his campaign against Lisbon.
21 April 1101: Consecrated Bishop of Santiago.
1102: Brought the bodies of Saints Susana and Fructuoso from Braga to Santiago.
1113 and 1133: Issued decrees for the protection of the Galician coast from Almoravid pirates.
1120: Became Archbishop of Santiago.
1121: Briefly imprisoned by Queen Urraca.
Late 1139 or early 1140: Death of Gelmírez.
Biography
Gelmírez was probably born in the mid-1060s. His father was a nobleman who managed church lands. In 1069, when Gelmírez was probably still a child, noble relatives killed the then bishop of Santiago de Compostela. Much later, King Alfonso VI deposed Bishop Diego Peláez. The precise role of Gelmírez’s father in these affairs is not known, but these events likely affected Gelmírez. According to the Historia Compostelana, Gelmírez avoided staying in palaces in Iria built by Bishop Peláez because they brought to mind Peláez’s bad fortune.
Gelmírez received his education at a cathedral school. By 1093, he was a church official in Santiago and also an official in the court of Raymond of Burgundy, the ruler of Galicia. In the following two years, he accompanied Raymond on a military expedition against Muslim-ruled Lisbon.
In 1095, Pope Urban II issued a bull transferring the seat of the diocese from Iria to Santiago, under the leadership of the bishop Dalmatius. After Dalmatius’ death later that year, there was a delay in naming a new bishop. Gelmírez was finally consecrated as bishop on 21 April 1101. He then traveled to Toledo to see King Alfonso, and to Braga, apparently with the intention of visiting churches that were part of his diocese. He did more than visit, as he brought a large number of relics from Braga back to Santiago as booty. His return to Santiago was rapid: Among the relics were the remains of Saints Susana and Fructuoso, which the inhabitants of Braga believed had been robbed.
Pope Calixtus II raised Gelmírez and his see to archiepiscopal rank in 1120.
As bishop and archbishop, Gelmírez played a major role in public affairs. Within the diocese, he dictated rules, collected taxes, administered justice, and led the army. To defend the coast against Almoravid pirates, he armed ships piloted by experts brought from Arles, Genoa, and Pisa. He insistently requested and finally obtained the privilege of minting coins.
Gelmírez’s activities were not without opposition. Rebellions broke out in Santiago in 1116 and 1136. At one point, Queen Urraca imprisoned Gelmírez, though according to one source, Gelmírez had enough support that he was only in prison for days. When the queen died, Gelmírez went to meet Alfonso VII, the new king. Relations with Alfonso, however, were cold and tense. Gelmírez saw himself obliged to provide the king with significant amounts of money. Maintaining–and expanding–the privileges of the diocese required sacrifice.
We know little more about Gelmírez’s death than about his birth. In 1139, he was invited to attend the Second Lateran Council and confirmed diplomas until June of that year. By a year later–in June of 1140–a new archbishop had been elected.
References & Further Reading
Primary Sources
Falque, Emma, ed. and trans. Historia Compostelana. Madrid: Ediciones Akal, 1994.
Secondary Works
Fletcher, Richard. St. James’s Catapult:The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.
Portela Silva, Ermelindo. “Diego de Gelmírez.” Real Academiade la Historia.
Originally part of a larger castle, the Torres do Oeste were built to defend against Viking attacks. Over the following centuries, bishops such as Diego Gelmírez fortified the structure, which provided control over the the Ría de Arousa estuary and the Ulla river, offering protection to Padrón and Santiago de Compostela.
This monastic community is first attested in the historical record in 1137, in a privilege given by the monarch Alfonso VII. The Mosteiro de Santa María de Oia became affiliated with the Cistercian Order in 1185.
The Order itself was still relatively new at this time; the first house at Cîteaux had been founded less than a century ago in 1098, and it took time for the Cistercians to develop a unified sense of identity and effective bureaucratic mechanisms. Historian Constance Berman even argues that the Cistercians did not emerge as an organized and cohesive Order until the third quarter of the twelfth century (rather than the early twelfth century as previously assumed, and still maintained by some other scholars). Furthermore, Berman argues that “apostolic gestation” (in which new Cistercian houses are founded by a small group of monks sent out from a “mother house”) was not the primary method by which the Cistercians expanded; rather, their incorporation of preexisting monastic communities explains their rapid spread across Europe. In any case, Oia, like Sobrado, is an example of a preexisting monastery that was later incorporated into the Cistercian Order.
Location
Located on the Galician coast, Oia needed to be able to withstand pirate incursions. During the thirteenth century, the community constructed new church and monastery buildings that provided greater fortification against attacks.
References & Further Reading
Berman, Constance. The Cistercian Evolution: TheInvention of a Religious Order in Twelfth-Century Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.
Burton, Janet, and Julie Kerr. The Cistercians in the Middle Ages. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2011.
Written in the twelfth century, the Liber Sancti Jacobi (Book of St. James) compiles information, advice, sermons, miracle stories, and more that would be of interest to a pilgrim on the Camino de Santiago. It is divided into five parts:
Book 1: The Sermons and Liturgy of Saint James: This lengthy book includes multiple sermons, accounts of the martyrdom of St. James, and liturgical texts.
Book 2:The Miracles of St. James: This book contains accounts of miracles that were attributed to St. James. Many of these miracles concern pilgrims.
Book 3:The Translatio of St. James: This relatively short book narrates the translation of St. James’ body from Jerusalem, where he died, to his final resting place in Galicia. It also mentions pilgrims collecting shells from the Galician coast.
Book 4:The Chronicle of Pseudo-Turpin: Written by an unknown twelfth-century writer, this chronicle was attributed to Archbishop Turpin of Reims. It describes Charlemagne’s arrival in Spain, the death of Roland, and St. James’ appearance to Charlemagne in a dream.
Book 5:Pilgrim’s Guide to Santiago de Compostela: Arguably one of the earliest tourist guides, this book tells pilgrims what to expect along the Camino, recommends places to visit, and warns against common problems.
The most famous manuscript containing the Liber Sancti Jacobi is the Codex Calixtinus.
English Translations of the Text
Gerson, Paula, Alison Stones, Jeanne Krochalis, and Annie Shaver-Crandell, ed. and trans. The Pilgrim’s Guide to Santiago de Compostela: A Critical Edition. 2 vols. London: Harvey Miller, 1998.
Italica Press’s Compostela Project, underway since 1993, has published English translations of Books 1-5. The sermon Veneranda Dies (which is in the first book of the Liber) has been translated and is included with the materials for Book 2.
This thirteenth-century miracle story is excerpted from a longer text describing the discovery of Ildefonsus’ relics in Zamora and their translation to a shrine.
Ildefonsus was born in Visigothic Spain c. 607 and served as archbishop of Toledo from 657 until his death in 667. He is best known for his vision of the Virgin Mary, who reportedly appeared to him and gave him a chasuble as a reward for his devotion to her.
This miracle story mentions a number of shrines and pilgrimage sites (in Lisbon, Braga, Santiago de Compostela, and Zamora) and captures a sense of rivalry among them–How did pilgrims choose where to visit? Which shrine provided the most effective healing miracles?
Translation
A certain man from Lugo, by the name of Pedro Dominguez, had suffered blindness of the eyes for two years. When he came to visit the shrine of the blessed Vincent [in Lisbon] to recover his health, the most holy Ildefonsus appeared to him there dressed in woolen pontificals, saying about himself that he was small and stocky in stature, but good-enough looking all the same. And [Ildefonsus] said that if [Pedro] wanted to be cured, he should go to Zamora where his [Ildefonsus’] relics were going to be revealed. However, that man [Pedro] did not acquiesce; rather, he went to Braga for another attempt at recovering his health under the auspices of the holy Gerard, and then he visited the shrine of the most holy apostle St. James [in Santiago de Compostela].
But the most holy Ildefonsus appeared to him in these places with the same advice, asserting that he would never receive good health until he visited the shrine of St. Peter in Zamora where his relics were going to be revealed. So, [Pedro] acquiesced to the vision and came to Zamora three days after the discovery of the relics of the most holy Ildefonsus. Although they [i.e. the people at Zamora] worked to dislodge his eyes, dry and shut up as if with glue, they could in no way do so. But they applied the most holy relics to the eyes of the blind man and he called out and fell to the ground as if dead – almost three hundred men were present and saw the above. And then as if dead or possessed by a demon, he lay on the ground for a long time. Then, in response to the voice of the most blessed Ildefonsus awakening him, as he himself asserted, he rose up with his eyesight restored. When he was asked why he cried out when he fell, he responded, ‘It seemed to me that it was as if I had been hit by a spear in the middle of the head and I fell from the magnitude of that blow.’ But at the voice of the most blessed Ildefonsus, as we said before, he rose.
References
Fita, Fidel. “Traslación é invención del cuerpo de San Ildefonso. Reseña histórica por Gil de Zamora.” Madrid, 26 May 1884. Transcription from the following manuscript: Biblioteca nacional; códice I, 247; fol. 26 vuelto-32 recto. Available online here.
The Cistercian monastic order was established in France and soon spread throughout medieval Europe. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) is the best-known Cistercian abbot, famous for propagating the Order’s particular brand of austere and mystical piety. Beginning in the 1130s, the Cistercians established a presence on the Iberian peninsula.
Abbots from across the Order met annually at Cîteaux for General Chapter meetings to discuss important matters, introduce new rules and regulations, and handle disciplinary issues. Initially, these meetings included only the abbots of Cîteaux, La Ferté, Pontigny, Morimund, and Clairvaux, but as the Cistercian Order expanded, so did General Chapter attendance. Abbots who lived near Cîteaux were expected to attend every year, while those who lived further away were obliged to attend less often (but still regularly). Like many pilgrims on the Camino, Galician abbots traveled long distances through France and northern Spain and depended on hospitality and infrastructure along their routes–abbots generally stopped in at other Cistercian monasteries to spend the night.
Cistercian Monasteries in Galicia
General Chapter meetings resulted in the production of statutes, which communicated issues that had been discussed and decisions that had been made. Many General Chapter statutes refer or are relevant to Cistercian monasteries in Galicia.
Translation: General Chapter Statutes on Galician Monasteries
1190, Statute #67/#48: “The abbot of Armenteira, who first neglected to come to Clairvaux when summoned, and then contemptuously refused to come to the General Chapter, is suspended from the office of the abbacy until he comes to Clairvaux, where he will spend six days in levi culpa [in light punishment], one of which he will fast on bread and water, and until he presents himself at the next Chapter, where he will explain his reasons for all this.”
Clairvaux, one of the oldest and most famous Cistercian houses, was the “mother house” of Armenteira, meaning that it had been responsible for founding Armenteira as a Cistercian monastery.
1191, Statute #4: “Concerning the abbots of Armenteira and La Espina, who abandoned their abbeys without the consent of the Father Abbot, and do not want to return to his command and will: This case is committed to the abbot of Clairvaux, who should visit those regions, and he should correct and castigate as he sees expedient, with the help and counsel of his fellow abbots.”
Armenteira is in Galicia, while La Espina is in Castile and León. The “Father Abbot” refers to the abbot of the mother house, in this case, Clairvaux.
1191, Statute #11: “Concerning the monk of Xunqueira [Junqueira], who is said to have his own horses and various other items: this is committed to the abbots of Escaledieu and Boulbonne. By the authority of the Chapter, they should correct and castigate as they see expedient once they have diligently investigated the truth of the matter. And the money which he offered to his own abbot should be returned to its rightful owner. If it turns out that he acquired this money by evil means, then he should receive the penalty for property ownership and theft.”
Cistercian monks were forbidden from owning personal property (and of course from stealing); this monk of Junqueira has exhibited egregious behavior.
1196, Statute #27: “Because of his inhumane treatment of a Spanish abbot, who spent the night outside the entrance of his monastery, the abbot of Bourras should spend three days in levi culpa, one of which fasting on bread and water, and forty days suspended from his office.”
Abbots from Galicia had a long way to travel before arriving at Cîteaux. They relied on the hospitality of Cistercian monasteries along the way, such as Bourras Abbey, which would have been on the route commonly taken by abbots from Spain. Here, the abbot of Bourras in France is disciplined for his extremely poor treatment of an unnamed Spanish abbot.
1197, Statute #19: “The abbot of Aubepierres [in the Limoges diocese, France], who provided less-than-charitable hospitality for abbots traveling to the Chapter, should spend three days in levi culpa, one of which fasting on bread and water.”
Aubepierres Abbey also lay along the route often taken by abbots from western Spain. This statute chastises the abbot of Aubepierres for insufficient hospitality.
1207, Statute #31: “The petition of the abbot of Sobrado to transfer the abbey of Val de Dios to a better location will be heeded.”
1208, Statute #17: “The abbot of Xunqueira, who did not come to the Chapter last year, and who was ordered to attend this year but refused, shall observe the penalty prescribed for this; if he does not present himself at Cîteaux by Easter, then he should understand that he is deposed. The abbot of Melón should give him notice of this.”
1213, Statute #41: “Concerning the abbot of Oia, who has become ill and remained behind on the way [to the General Chapter meeting], and is said to be weighed down by old age: This case is committed to the abbot of Clairvaux.”
1257, Statute #40: “The abbot of Sobrado, who did not express sufficient cause for his delay away from the General Chapter, should be suspended from office for six days and nevertheless should present himself at the next General Chapter.”
References
We have translated from Waddell’s edition for the twelfth-century statutes and from Canivez’s editions for later statutes. In some cases, two numbers are given for a statute (e.g. “Statute #67/#48”); the first reflects how the statute is numbered in Canivez, the second how it is numbered in Waddell.
Canivez, Joseph-Marie, ed. Statuta Capitulorum Generalium Ordinis Cisterciensis, 8 vols. Louvain: Bureaux de la Revue, 1933-41. Edition in Latin of Cistercian statutes from 1116 until 1786.
Waddell, Chrysogonus, ed. Twelfth-Century Statutes from the Cistercian General Chapter. Cîteaux: commentarii cistercienses, 2002. Updated Latin edition of twelfth-century statutes with useful English commentary.
Secondary Works
D’Emilio, James. “The Cistercians and the Romanesque Churches of Galicia: Compostela or Clairvaux?” In Perspectives for an Architecture of Solitude: Essays on Cistercians, Art and Architecture in Honour of Peter Fergusson. Edited by Terryl Kinder. Turnhout: Brepols and Cîteaux, 2004. 313-327.
The Castle of Rocha Forte, near the town of Santiago de Compostela, was active from its thirteenth-century construction until the fifteenth century, when it was badly damaged during the Irmandiño revolts. Today, the castle is in a state of ruin.
Located on the route connecting Santiago with Padrón and Noia, Rocha Forte was ideally situated to control the flow of people and goods in and out of Santiago. It also served as a convenient refuge for Santiago’s archbishops when they encountered trouble with the townspeople. Newly appointed archbishop Berengar of Landorra, for example, visited Rocha Forte during the 1318-1320 town uprising against him.
Cooper, Edward. La fortificación de España en los síglos XIII y XIV. Vol. 1. Madrid: Ministerio de Defensa, Marcial Pons Historia, 2014. 163-166.
Portela, Ermelindo, María Carmen Pallares, and Xosé Manuel Sánchez. Rocha Forte: El castillo y su historia. Xunta de Galicia, 2004.
Rocha Forte: Interactive website devoted to the castle of Rocha Forte, near Santiago de Compostela.
Sánchez Sánchez, J.M. “La fortaleza de Rocha Forte: un castillo concéntrico en las corrientes constructivas europeas del siglo XIV.” Compostellanum 52 (2007): 603-632.
Many roads lead to Santiago de Compostela–but this is the route that is described in the famous “Pilgrim’s Guide” in the twelfth-century Liber Sancti Jacobi.
