Originally part of a larger castle, the Torres do Oeste were built to defend against Viking attacks. Over the following centuries, bishops such as Diego Gelmírez fortified the structure, which provided control over the the Ría de Arousa estuary and the Ulla river, offering protection to Padrón and Santiago de Compostela.
This monastic community is first attested in the historical record in 1137, in a privilege given by the monarch Alfonso VII. The Mosteiro de Santa María de Oia became affiliated with the Cistercian Order in 1185.
The Order itself was still relatively new at this time; the first house at Cîteaux had been founded less than a century ago in 1098, and it took time for the Cistercians to develop a unified sense of identity and effective bureaucratic mechanisms. Historian Constance Berman even argues that the Cistercians did not emerge as an organized and cohesive Order until the third quarter of the twelfth century (rather than the early twelfth century as previously assumed, and still maintained by some other scholars). Furthermore, Berman argues that “apostolic gestation” (in which new Cistercian houses are founded by a small group of monks sent out from a “mother house”) was not the primary method by which the Cistercians expanded; rather, their incorporation of preexisting monastic communities explains their rapid spread across Europe. In any case, Oia, like Sobrado, is an example of a preexisting monastery that was later incorporated into the Cistercian Order.
Located on the Galician coast, Oia needed to be able to withstand pirate incursions. During the thirteenth century, the community constructed new church and monastery buildings that provided greater fortification against attacks.
Berman, Constance. The Cistercian Evolution: The Invention of a Religious Order in Twelfth-Century Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.
Burton, Janet, and Julie Kerr. The Cistercians in the Middle Ages. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2011.
“Historia.” Concello de Oia.
Jamroziak, Emilia. The Cistercians in Medieval Europe, 1090-1500. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Real Mosteiro de Oia: Official website.
The Cistercian monastic order was established in France and soon spread throughout medieval Europe. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) is the best-known Cistercian abbot, famous for propagating the Order’s particular brand of austere and mystical piety. Beginning in the 1130s, the Cistercians established a presence on the Iberian peninsula.
Abbots from across the Order met annually at Cîteaux for General Chapter meetings to discuss important matters, introduce new rules and regulations, and handle disciplinary issues. Initially, these meetings included only the abbots of Cîteaux, La Ferté, Pontigny, Morimund, and Clairvaux, but as the Cistercian Order expanded, so did General Chapter attendance. Abbots who lived near Cîteaux were expected to attend every year, while those who lived further away were obliged to attend less often (but still regularly). Like many pilgrims on the Camino, Galician abbots traveled long distances through France and northern Spain and depended on hospitality and infrastructure along their routes–abbots generally stopped in at other Cistercian monasteries to spend the night.
General Chapter meetings resulted in the production of statutes, which communicated issues that had been discussed and decisions that had been made. Many General Chapter statutes refer or are relevant to Cistercian monasteries in Galicia.
1190, Statute #67/#48: “The abbot of Armenteira, who first neglected to come to Clairvaux when summoned, and then contemptuously refused to come to the General Chapter, is suspended from the office of the abbacy until he comes to Clairvaux, where he will spend six days in levi culpa [in light punishment], one of which he will fast on bread and water, and until he presents himself at the next Chapter, where he will explain his reasons for all this.”
Clairvaux, one of the oldest and most famous Cistercian houses, was the “mother house” of Armenteira, meaning that it had been responsible for founding Armenteira as a Cistercian monastery.
1191, Statute #4: “Concerning the abbots of Armenteira and La Espina, who abandoned their abbeys without the consent of the Father Abbot, and do not want to return to his command and will: This case is committed to the abbot of Clairvaux, who should visit those regions, and he should correct and castigate as he sees expedient, with the help and counsel of his fellow abbots.”
Armenteira is in Galicia, while La Espina is in Castile and León. The “Father Abbot” refers to the abbot of the mother house, in this case, Clairvaux.
1191, Statute #11: “Concerning the monk of Xunqueira [Junqueira], who is said to have his own horses and various other items: this is committed to the abbots of Escaledieu and Boulbonne. By the authority of the Chapter, they should correct and castigate as they see expedient once they have diligently investigated the truth of the matter. And the money which he offered to his own abbot should be returned to its rightful owner. If it turns out that he acquired this money by evil means, then he should receive the penalty for property ownership and theft.”
Cistercian monks were forbidden from owning personal property (and of course from stealing); this monk of Junqueira has exhibited egregious behavior.
1196, Statute #27: “Because of his inhumane treatment of a Spanish abbot, who spent the night outside the entrance of his monastery, the abbot of Bourras should spend three days in levi culpa, one of which fasting on bread and water, and forty days suspended from his office.”
Abbots from Galicia had a long way to travel before arriving at Cîteaux. They relied on the hospitality of Cistercian monasteries along the way, such as Bourras Abbey, which would have been on the route commonly taken by abbots from Spain. Here, the abbot of Bourras in France is disciplined for his extremely poor treatment of an unnamed Spanish abbot.
1197, Statute #19: “The abbot of Aubepierres [in the Limoges diocese, France], who provided less-than-charitable hospitality for abbots traveling to the Chapter, should spend three days in levi culpa, one of which fasting on bread and water.”
Aubepierres Abbey also lay along the route often taken by abbots from western Spain. This statute chastises the abbot of Aubepierres for insufficient hospitality.
1207, Statute #31: “The petition of the abbot of Sobrado to transfer the abbey of Val de Dios to a better location will be heeded.”
1208, Statute #17: “The abbot of Xunqueira, who did not come to the Chapter last year, and who was ordered to attend this year but refused, shall observe the penalty prescribed for this; if he does not present himself at Cîteaux by Easter, then he should understand that he is deposed. The abbot of Melón should give him notice of this.”
1213, Statute #41: “Concerning the abbot of Oia, who has become ill and remained behind on the way [to the General Chapter meeting], and is said to be weighed down by old age: This case is committed to the abbot of Clairvaux.”
1257, Statute #40: “The abbot of Sobrado, who did not express sufficient cause for his delay away from the General Chapter, should be suspended from office for six days and nevertheless should present himself at the next General Chapter.”
We have translated from Waddell’s edition for the twelfth-century statutes and from Canivez’s editions for later statutes. In some cases, two numbers are given for a statute (e.g. “Statute #67/#48”); the first reflects how the statute is numbered in Canivez, the second how it is numbered in Waddell.
Canivez, Joseph-Marie, ed. Statuta Capitulorum Generalium Ordinis Cisterciensis, 8 vols. Louvain: Bureaux de la Revue, 1933-41. Edition in Latin of Cistercian statutes from 1116 until 1786.
Waddell, Chrysogonus, ed. Twelfth-Century Statutes from the Cistercian General Chapter. Cîteaux: commentarii cistercienses, 2002. Updated Latin edition of twelfth-century statutes with useful English commentary.
D’Emilio, James. “The Cistercians and the Romanesque Churches of Galicia: Compostela or Clairvaux?” In Perspectives for an Architecture of Solitude: Essays on Cistercians, Art and Architecture in Honour of Peter Fergusson. Edited by Terryl Kinder. Turnhout: Brepols and Cîteaux, 2004. 313-327.
The Castle of Rocha Forte, near the town of Santiago de Compostela, was active from its thirteenth-century construction until the fifteenth century, when it was badly damaged during the Irmandiño revolts. Today, the castle is in a state of ruin.
Located on the route connecting Santiago with Padrón and Noia, Rocha Forte was ideally situated to control the flow of people and goods in and out of Santiago. It also served as a convenient refuge for Santiago’s archbishops when they encountered trouble with the townspeople. Newly appointed archbishop Berengar of Landorra, for example, visited Rocha Forte during the 1318-1320 town uprising against him.
“Castelo da Rocha Forte.” Patrimonio Galego. 8 June 2011.
Cooper, Edward. La fortificación de España en los síglos XIII y XIV. Vol. 1. Madrid: Ministerio de Defensa, Marcial Pons Historia, 2014. 163-166.
Portela, Ermelindo, María Carmen Pallares, and Xosé Manuel Sánchez. Rocha Forte: El castillo y su historia. Xunta de Galicia, 2004.
Rocha Forte: Interactive website devoted to the castle of Rocha Forte, near Santiago de Compostela.
Sánchez Sánchez, J.M. “La fortaleza de Rocha Forte: un castillo concéntrico en las corrientes constructivas europeas del siglo XIV.” Compostellanum 52 (2007): 603-632.
Located in Galicia in northwestern Spain, Noia was a busy commercial port town during the Middle Ages. Multiple historic buildings survive in the town, including the Church of San Martín and the Church of Santa María a Nova.
Berengar of Landorra briefly retreated to Noia shortly after his 1317 appointment as Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, which occasioned a rebellion by the Compostelan townspeople against episcopal lordship over the town. These events are described in the Gesta Berengarii. In July 1320, Berengar convinced Maria de Molina, grandmother and tutor of the young Castilian king Alfonso XI, to grant tax exemptions to the town of Noia. Years later, Berengar was responsible for the construction of Santa Maria a Nova, consecrated on January 28, 1327.
González Balasch, María Teresa, ed. Tumbo B de la Catedral de Santiago. Santiago de Compostela: Edicios do Castro, 2004. 157-158.
Sobrado Abbey (known in Galician as “Mosteiro de Santa María de Sobrado dos Monxes” and in Castilian as “Monasterio de Santa María de Sobrado de los Monjes”) was initially founded in the tenth century by Count Hermengildo and his wife Paterna. It became affiliated with the Cistercian Order as a daughter house of Clairvaux in 1142, making it one of the Order’s earlier houses on the Iberian peninsula.
According to the traditional foundation narrative, Cistercian monasticism dates to 1098, arising from a conscious effort to reform monastic life and return to a “purer” adherence to the sixth-century Benedictine Rule. The Cistercians are known for eschewing the luxuries that had become common in eleventh-century monasteries and for their austere artistic and architectural style, which lacked elaborate ornamentation. As the foundation narrative goes, in 1098, Robert, abbot of Molesme, and a group of followers abandoned their abbey to start a new community that was more isolated and more obedient to the Rule. They founded this new community at Cîteaux, though they struggled during their early years. Bernard (1090-1153) joined the monastery with a group of friends in 1112, and his activity a prolific writer, preacher, and abbot of the newly founded Cistercian house Clairvaux appears to have rejuvenated the Order, spurring its expansion over the subsequent decades.
In addition to simplicity and austerity, the Cistercians valued manual labor such as work in the fields. As the Benedictine Rule instructed: “Idleness is the enemy of the soul. The brethren, therefore, must be occupied at stated hours in manual labor.” Monks, however, did not do all the work necessary for running the monastery themselves; Cistercians are well-known for their acceptance of lay brothers (conversi), often drawn from lower social classes than the monks, who performed necessary physical labor for the survival and success of the monastic community.
Over the course of the twelfth century, the Cistercian Order expanded significantly from its original house at Cîteaux, establishing monasteries in Scandinavia, the British Isles, Eastern Europe, and Iberia. Some new houses were established from scratch by existing “mother” houses, which sent monks to the new “daughter” houses and also equipped them with necessary manuscripts. Others, including Sobrado and Oia in Galicia, were already established monastic communities that were then incorporated into the Cistercian Order (though they were still integrated into the Cistercian filiation network; Clairvaux became the mother house of Sobrado). Abbots of mother houses were required to visit their daughter houses to ensure that they were following correct Cistercian practices.
The Cistercian General Chapter was the highest authority in the Order; every September, abbots convened at Cîteaux for General Chapter meetings to discuss problems, petitions, and new rules and regulations. Abbots from nearby foundations were required to attend annually, while those coming from faraway were obliged to attend less often. Thanks to Cistercian filiation networks and General Chapter meetings, the Order generally upheld an impressive level of standardization and organization across a broad geographical area.
No system is perfect–the Cistercian General Chapter often rebuked abbots who failed to attend Chapter meetings and in 1257 chastised the abbot of Sobrado, “who did not express sufficient cause for his delay away from the General Chapter.” The abbot was suspended from office for six days and instructed to attend the next Chapter meeting.1
Several rooms survive from the Middle Ages, including the late twelfth- or thirteenth-century chapter house, the twelfth-century chapel of St. John the Baptist, and the thirteenth-century kitchen.
Located next to the refectory, the kitchen was in use from its construction in the thirteenth century until the desamortización in the nineteenth (also known as the “Spanish confiscation,” desamortización denotes the seizure of Church assets by the Spanish government). In the center of the kitchen, four large columns surround and support the chimney.
1 Canivez, Statuta, vol. 2, Year 1257, #40, 432.
Canivez, Joseph-Marie, ed. Statuta Capitulorum Generalium Ordinis Cisterciensis, 8 vols. Louvain: Bureaux de la Revue, 1933-41.
Burton, Janet, and Julie Kerr. The Cistercians in the Middle Ages. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2011.
“Cistercian Life.” The Cistercians in Yorkshire. Project directed by Sarah Foot.
D’Emilio, James, ed. and trans. Culture and Society in Medieval Galicia: A Cultural Crossroads at the Edge of Europe. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
Jamroziak, Emilia. The Cistercians in Medieval Europe, 1090-1500. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Ordóñez, Santiago. Sobrado dos Monxes: Primer monasterio cisterciense de España. León: Edilesa, 1998.
This spot was once home to a Celtic settlement and became known as Iria Flavia under the Roman emperor Titus, who ruled from 79 to 81. The town is traditionally known as the first place in Spain where St. James preached. Upon James’ death in Jerusalem, his disciples sailed with his body back to Galicia, arriving in Iria Flavia where they moored their boat to a pedrón (large stone), inspiring the town’s new name of Padrón. Visitors can still see the famous stone today at the parish church of Santiago de Padrón.
During the early Middle Ages, Iria/Padrón became the seat of a bishopric. The town suffered attacks from both Vikings and Normans, prompting the construction of the defensive Torres do Oeste (West Towers) nearby on the Ulla River, at the head of the estuary known as the Ría de Arousa.
Soraluce Blond, José Ramón. Cascos históricos de Galicia. La Coruña: Arenas Publicaciones, 2011. 193-203.
Soraluce Blond, José Ramón. Cascos históricos de Galicia. La Coruña: Arenas Publicaciones, 2011. 165-166.